Drama Introductory
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Trifles--the
elements of Drama
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You know a lot about drama
because you see so much of it--tv, movies, videos, live drama (high school or
professional productions). Several
years ago I asked my class to list all the dramas they had seen in the last two
weeks. My plan was to define
"drama" inductively. That is,
by starting with what we felt was drama, we would come up with an
inclusive definition based on our own reality.
Try that now: jot down a list of
the dramas you have seen in the last two weeks.
When I heard the list of my
students, I had no problem with examples of movies, tv shows, videotapes, and
on-stage drama. The definition that
resulted was something like: a story
with characters acting out a conflict that is resolved. It didn't matter whether the story was on a
stage or filmed. It could even be a
street theater like those I'd read about sponsored by the charity Save the
Children to spread the word in
But I realized that some of
my students were working with a definition of drama that challenged mine. And that conflict made me want to sharpen my
definition, even though I learned from their example.
Would you include
#1? One student talked about seeing an argument at work between two
co-workers. As the student explained
the episode, I could see how it fit a broad definition of drama: it was a conflict and it was resolved by the
characters involved. If you really care
about the READER/AUDIENCE in
interpreting literature, then my student was right. He created the drama by noticing it as a drama. But I was unhappy including this
example. I wanted a drama to have
meaning from an AUTHOR. I wanted it to be shaped to have a meaning,
so that it wasn't just an inkblot that I could read meaning into--whatever
I wanted it to mean. Even if I didn't
infer (figure out) the same meaning as the author implied (that is, suggested),
I wanted the drama to have a reality that I could check with someone else. And that meant that it had to be scripted in
some way so that it was replicable, replayable--so I could discuss it with
someone else. See FAQ1 to understand how
people can hold different "reasonable" interpretations.
Yet I realized how important
the student's example was. Surely the
power of drama on stage (tv/moviehouse/video) comes from the basic human
instinct to understand the life we live (or wish for or fear) by taking it out
of our real life setting and putting it into a frame. In the case of drama, that frame is a stage of some sort. That is, at least in my definition, a
playwright does in literature what my student had done as an AUDIENCE to a
real-life episode.
Would you include
#2? Another student included in her list the funeral of
Yet there was something in
the example that didn't seem to fit. I
remembered a broad definition of play as "rule-governed behavior
without serious consequences" (Johan Huizinga, Homo Ludens [Boston: BeaconP, 1955]). This definition covered drama as well as football games. What was it about the funeral that made it
seem weird to think of it as drama and almost disrespectful to think of
calling it a play? I would call
the funeral a ritual, but not a play.
A ritual has a script but the main character changes with each time it
is performed, and the results--on the main character and the audience--are
serious in emotional, spiritual or legal results, whether at a wedding, a
baptism, oath taking in a court of law or taking office as president. Drama is
pretended; ritual is scripted, but real, with the main parts not played by
actors.
New question: So
is Survivor or other "reality TV" shows a drama? Is a quiz show?
At the end of the discussion,
I realized that we all may have somewhat different definitions of drama. The one I finally formulated was this:
A drama is a scripted
story of characters in a conflict that gets resolved to make a point, and this
script can be repeated when actors perform a staged version (whether on stage,
in a film or television production).
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The Elements of Drama: Trifles
Definitions are only useful
if they help us see or do more. So
let's see what a definition can help us see with the one-act play Trifles by
Susan Glaspell. .
Most definitions [hjs1]contain at
least the following five elements:
What do we gain from using
these definitions? Well, what do we
gain from having commonly accepted understanding of what a strike is in
baseball, or a home run, or a double?
That is, we can talk to each other more precisely and clearly about our
reactions and interpretations.
Action: For
example, in Trifles, if someone asked you what it was about, you might
say it's about how a woman murders her husband. Certainly the most sensational part of the play is the strangling
of Mr. Wright. But writing a summary of
the action shows the drama is not a murder but the detection of a
murder: Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters discover a motive for Minnie Wright's
murder of her husband and decide to hide the evidence from the authorities (the
county attorney and the sheriff, Mrs. Peters' husband).
Plotting: The
way the story is put together deals with the plotting or scripting of the
story. And the plotting helps
explain why the women act as they do.
In Aspects of the Novel (1927), the novelist E.M. Forster
defined the difference between plotting and story (what we're calling action)
with an example: Story is: the king
died and the queen died. Plotting
is: the king died and then the queen
died of grief. Plotting helps explain why; action just explains what
happens. In a drama, it is useful to
notice the way the author puts the action together in presenting and resolving
the central conflict of the drama in the plot structure.
1. introduction of the conflict (exposition)
2. rising action or complication
3. turning point (climax)
4. falling action
5. resolution
Try formulating your own
list. The editors of the Norton
Anthology give one listing on pp.1029-1030, but that is not the only
answer. If you want to see a different
formulation from the editors' explanation, click here
[hjs2]. (If you're interested in exploring the
question of why people come up with different interpretations, click FAQ2.) What did you decide was the turning
point? For example,
·
finding the bird?
·
Mrs. Peters saying a
cat got the bird?
·
Mrs. Hale taking out
the messy stitches?
It seems to me that the reader
sees a slightly different focus for the story depending on the choice. If you are willing to play with me--take a
minute to think through or jot down your agreement or disagreement, either
before or after you check out my reasoning by clicking here[hjs3].
Our definition also stresses
an author ordering elements of the story to produce effects in the
audience. To check this out, consider
the order in which certain props are discovered. There are two lists below:
the one on the left is the order of presentation in the play, the one on
the right is a re-ordering. What is
lost by the re-ordering?
Actual Order |
Scrambled Order |
Mr. Henderson criticizes
the dirty roller towel. |
|
Mrs. Peters finds the
quilting basket and Mrs. Hale notices one block of quilt with irregular
stitching.. |
Mrs. Peters finds the
birdcage with a broken door. |
Mrs. Peters finds the
birdcage with a broken door. |
Mrs. Hale finds the bird. |
Mrs. Hale finds the bird. |
Mrs. Peters finds the
quilting basket and Mrs. Hale notices one block of quilt with irregular
stitching.. |
|
Mr. Henderson criticizes
the dirty roller towel. |
If you saw the play in the
scrambled order, would that change your opinion of Mrs. Hale and Mrs.
Peters? Do you think a different order
might have changed what they thought and did?
I must confess that I tried to re-do the order so that Mrs. Hale and
Mrs. Peters find evidence of a link to the murder (strangulation of bird) and a
possible motive before they find the evidence that makes them identify with
Mrs. Wright's plight. Glaspell has
ordered the story elements in such a way that the women--and the
audience--understand Mrs. Wright's life before they get the final piece of
evidence--the dead bird.
The detective story deals
with what people can infer
from evidence. For example, the men
check whether any of the windows have been tampered with. When they find no evidence of breakage or
broken locks, they infer that Mr. Wright was not murdered by a person
who gained illegal entry to the house and this inference strengthens the case
against Mrs. Wright. The women see
different kinds of evidence and are able to make inferences from their
knowledge of a woman's life and values and their sympathy for her. Remember, authors involve the audience in
the play when they don’t simply tell what something means but SHOW it to imply
something.
Authors often give evidence indirectly through implications
because audiences believe more fully if they figure something out for
themselves. Authors are often advised: show, don't tell.
For example, when the women
find the dead bird in the pretty box, Mrs. Hale “suddenly puts her hand to her
nose” and “Mrs. Peters bends nearer, then turns her face away” (p. 960). The
stage directions imply that the bird has begun to smell from decomposition
after death. Remember that the body of Wright was found the day before and that
the house has been cold enough overnight to freeze the bottled fruit, breaking
the jars. So what do you infer about
the time the bird’s death took place?
Click here
[HS4]for an
answer.
Characters: Understanding
the experience, personalities and values of the characters in the story
helps us to understand the story.
World: We
might know someone like Mr. Henderson today, but the world of the play
is different from our world in some important respects. Written in 1916 and published in 1920, the
play was later refashioned into a short story "A Jury of Her Peers"
(1917), available on-line at http://www.learner.org/exhibits/literature/story/fulltext.html
. The short-story title echoes the
provision in
Staging: All
the elements discussed so far--action, plotting, characters and world--apply to
fiction or poetry that tells a story.
But only drama has staging.
You are not told by the narrator how to take things, but must
infer them from what you see and hear --either on a stage, in a movie or in the
drama you create in your head as you read.
The language is not a narration but talk that is overheard. Sometimes stage directions will help you
"see," but at other times you will have to understand by reading
“between the lines”—that is, by understanding the subtext that is implied.
Example 1: Something is going on in the course of the
stage directions in the following passage about the quilt blocks the women have
discovered.
MRS.
HALE: Mrs. Peters, look at this
one. Here, this is the one she was
working on, and look at the sewing! All
the rest of it has been so nice and even.
And look at this! It's all over
the place! Why, it looks as if she didn't know what she was about! [After
she has said this they look at each other, then start to glance back at the
door. After an instant MRS. HALE has
pulled at a knot and ripped the sewing.]
What is each woman thinking
as she looks at the other? Why do they
glance back at the door? What does it
mean that Mrs. Hale pulls a knot and rips out the sewing?
Example 2: When Mrs. Hale opens the box with the dead
bird, she puts her hand to her nose.
After Mrs. Peters bends nearer, she also turns away. What does it mean that the bird in the cold
house has begun to smell[hjs5]?
Example 3: When the women realize the bird's neck has
been wrung, the Sheriff and
MRS.
PETERS:
Somebody--wrung--its--neck. [Their
eyes meet. A look of growing
comprehension, of horror. Steps are
heard outside. MRS. HALE slips box
under quilt pieces, and sinks into her chair.
Enter SHERIFF and
MRS.
PETERS: We think she was going to--knot
it.
MRS.
HALE: [Putting more quilt pieces
over the box.] We think the--cat
got it.
[MRS.
HALE glances in a quick covert way at MRS. PETERS.]
MRS.
PETERS: Well, not now. They're superstitious, you know. They leave.
Often authors involve us in
their drama through dramatic irony.
Imagine that you hear a character state an intention or opinion and you know
from the plotting that is not the case.
At the end of the play, when Mrs. Peters and Mrs. Hale have hidden the
dead bird in the box, the
Look at the scene quoted
above for dramatic irony, especially Mr. Henderson's line, " Well, that's interesting, I'm
sure. [Seeing the bird-cage.] Has the bird flown?"
Authors also imply meaning
through the use of symbolism. Symbols
are real things that have an ordinary or literal meaning, but have also
come to have a figurative or symbolic meaning attached to them. The American flag is a piece of cloth that
waves in the breeze, but it symbolizes the
On a literal level, we see
that a bird is just right for showing callousness. A cricket is a bug that doesn't seem too cuddly to most
people. And a cat is big enough for its
murder to seem like deliberate cruelty.
It is important for the conflict in the play to realize that Mr. Wright
is not evil. As Mrs. Hale says, he is a
"good man"--that is, "he didn't drink, and kept his word as well
as most, . . . and paid his debts. But
he was a hard man." But is that
enough to cover up Mrs. Wright's deliberate strangling of him? You may think that nothing justifies the
coverup by Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters, but if it is at all understandable to
you, it is because the author has made the bird symbolic of Mrs. Wright. For example, a canary sings (unlike a
cricket or a cat), and Minnie Wright used to sing in the choir before she
married. Mrs. Hale even says,
"Come to think of it, she was kind of like a bird herself--real sweet and
pretty, but kind of timid and--fluttery.
How--she--did--change."
[hjs1]My working definition
is " A drama is a scripted story of characters in a conflict that gets
resolved to make a point, and this script can be repeated when actors perform a
staged version (whether on stage, in a film or television production)."
[hjs2]introduction: Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters (the sheriff's wife) accompany their husbands to the Wright farm as the men investigate who killed Mr. Wright, starting with Mr. Hale's description of discovering the murder.
rising action:
The importance of a motive is stressed, but also
turning point:
falling action: Mrs. Peters and Mrs. Hale explore justice issues. Mrs. Peters identifies more with Mrs. Wright and decides not to mention the bird.
resolution:
[hjs3] Finding the bird gives concrete support to the motivation Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters are constructing for Mrs. Wright's murder of her husband. That means that the play is about the detection of a murder by women who have been dismissed as concerned with "trifles."
Mrs. Peters knows Mrs. Wright is upset by cats and therefore doesn't have one at home, yet she backs up Mrs. Hale's lie that a cat got the bird from the broken cage. This is the turning point because we see the first outright lie to the authorities, and neither woman mentions the dead bird they have just found. The falling action shows their deepening commitment to the decision to protect Mrs. Wright first made here, ending with shared responsibility for withholding crucial evidence.
Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters deduce from the stitching that Mrs. Wright was suddenly made upset. They exchange glances Mrs. Hale takes out the bad stitching, and the dialog shows both women suspect this could be considered as tampering with evidence. This is a turning point because Mrs. Peters could now turn in Mrs. Hale. The falling action shows Mrs. Peters commits to feminist loyalty despite her loyalty to her husband and her duty to the law.
[HS4]The bird’s death occurred before Wright’s murder. If the setting were a tropical island, the implication might be that the bird’s death occurred AFTER Wright’s death.
[hjs5]I think it shows that the murder of Mr. Wright is pre-meditated. The bird carcass has begun to decompose, even in the cold house. Therefore, some hours or perhaps even a day passed between the killing of the bird and the strangling in bed of John Wright.